Best Vertical Monitor – Ultimate Buying Guide
Vertical monitors are quickly gaining ground as a new standard for everyday tasks, productivity, and entertainment. Computer users of all levels love that you can physically rotate (or pivot) the monitor from a traditional landscape mode to a vertical, portrait mode.
Whether you’re thinking about getting a vertical monitor for programming, web browsing, reading, gaming, designing, or something else, this buying guide will help you choose the best vertical monitor to fit your requirements and budget.
- Best Vertical Monitor – Ultimate Buying Guide
- What are the Benefits of a Vertical Monitor?
- Best Vertical Monitor 2023 – Quick List
- Best Vertical Monitor 2023 – Reviews
- 1. HP 24mh – Best Overall 24 Inch
- 2. HP VH240a – Best Adjustability 24 Inch
- 3. Samsung FT45 – Best Samsung 24 Inch
- 4. BenQ PD2500Q – Best BenQ 24 Inch
- 5. ASUS VG259QR – Best Gaming 24 Inch
- 6. SAMSUNG SR650 – Best Overall 27 Inch
- 7. ASUS VN279QL – Best ASUS 27 Inch
- 8. Dell Ultrasharp U2719DX – Best Dell 27 Inch
- 9. LG 27UN850-W – Best LG 27 Inch
- 10. LG 27GL83A-B – Best Gaming 27 Inch
- 11. BenQ PD3200Q – Best Overall 32 Inch
- 12. LG 32BN88U-B – Best LG 32 Inch
- 13. LG 32BN88U-B – Best LG Gaming 32 Inch
- 14. AOC C32G2 – Best AOC Gaming 32 Inch
- 15. Sceptre E325B-QPN168 – Best Sceptre Gaming 32 Inch
What are the Benefits of a Vertical Monitor?
Increased Viewability
With vertical monitors, you can see more content. For programmers specifically, a vertical screen can allow the viewing of 84 lines of code versus the horizontal view of 46, that’s a 82% increase. Graphic designers can fill the entire screen with a portrait-oriented design projects such as a poster, greeting card, family photo, or web page. Video editors can see and edit videos made for mobile in their native vertical layout.
Improved Eye and Neck Health
A vertical screen allows for more natural eye and neck movement. Your eyes naturally scan a monitor screen similar to how they would a book. Your eyes tend to view one page at a time, and slowly working their way from top to bottom. This vertical type of movement is not stressful for the eyes. The neck is also less strained when moving vertically.
Multiple Monitor Setup
You can physically fit more monitors closely together, when they are setup vertically. This reduces the amount of desk space used, and again reduces eye & neck movement as well. You can also combine layouts, such as one setup vertically, and the other horizontally. This can be useful for comparison purposes, gaming, or utilizing many applications at once.
Best Vertical Monitor 2023 – Quick List
Best 24 inch Vertical Monitors
| 1. HP 24mh (Best Overall 24 inch, 1080p/FHD) |
| 2. HP VH240a (Best Adjustability 24 inch, 1080p/FHD) |
| 3. Samsung FT45 (Best Samsung 24 inch, 1080p/FHD) |
| 4. BenQ PD2500Q (Best BenQ 24 inch, 1440p/QHD) |
| 5. ASUS VG248QG (Best Gaming 24 inch, 1080p/FHD) |
Best 27 inch Vertical Monitors
| 6. Samsung SR650 (Best Overall 27 inch, 1080p/FHD) |
| 7. ASUS VN279QL (Best ASUS 27 inch, 1080p/FHD) |
| 8. Dell U2719DX (Best Dell 27 inch, 1440p/WQHD) |
| 9. LG 27UN850-W (Best LG 27 inch, 2160p/4K) |
| 10. LG 27GL83A-B (Best Gaming 27 inch, 1440p/QHD) |
Best 32 inch Vertical Monitors
| 11. BenQ PD3200Q (Best Overall 32 inch, 1440p/QHD) |
| 12. LG 32BN88U-B (Best LG 32 inch, 2160p/4K) |
| 13. LG 32GN650-B (Best LG Gaming 32 inch, 1440p/QHD) |
| 14. AOC C32G2 (Best AOC Gaming 32 inch, 1080p/FHD) |
| 15. Sceptre E325B-QPN168 (Best Sceptre Gaming 32 inch, 1440p/QHD) |
Best Vertical Monitor 2023 – Reviews
1. HP 24mh – Best Overall 24 Inch
Key Features:
- 24 inch screen
- FHD, 1920×1080
- Built-in speakers
| Screen Size | 24 inch |
| Resolution | Full HD | 1920 x 1080p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 75Hz |
| Response Time | 5ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 1x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort, 1x VGA |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The HP 24mh is currently one of the best selling, highest rated monitors available right now. It strives and succeeds, at giving you as many features as possible at an affordable price. The IPS display excels with providing crisp visuals in consistent color, with 178 degrees of viewability. We think the monitor’s design and style is pretty much perfect. With contrasting black and gray, minimal bezels, and a sleek adjustable stand.
The built-in speakers are helpful since it can open up more space on your desk area (no need for external speakers). The Low Blue Light Mode is definitely a nice touch, and can be quite useful for long sessions on the computer, since it promotes eye health.
2. HP VH240a – Best Adjustability 24 Inch
Key Features:
- 24 inch screen
- FHD, 1920×1080
- Built-in speakers
| Screen Size | 24 inch |
| Resolution | Full HD | 1920 x 1080p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 60Hz |
| Response Time | 5ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 1x HDMI, 1x VGA |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The HP VH240a is another best selling monitor on Amazon right now. With everything it has going for it, it’s easy to see why. It has minimal bezels, a FHD screen, built in speakers, VESA mounting, high adjustability, modern design, and an affordable price. The high level of adjustability stands above many others because of the 4-Way ergonomic viewing. This includes 90 degree rotation for horizontal (landscape) and vertical (portrait) viewing modes, adjustable height and tilt (-5° to 30°), and 178 degree positional viewing.
3. Samsung FT45 – Best Samsung 24 Inch
Key Features:
- 24 inch screen
- FHD, 1920×1080
- Multiple connectivity ports
| Screen Size | 24 inch |
| Resolution | Full HD | 1920 x 1080p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 75Hz |
| Response Time | 5ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 2x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort, 2x USB 2.0, 1x USB 3.0 |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The Samsung FT45 is a compact IPS monitor that is perfect for office use, especially for somewhat smaller work areas. The 24 inch screen will still give you plenty of space to get all of your important work done. There’s a good amount of connectivity options including: 2x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort, 2x USB 2.0, 1x USB 3.0.
4. BenQ PD2500Q – Best BenQ 24 Inch
Key Features:
- 25 inch screen
- QHD, 2560×1440
- sRGB 100%
| Screen Size | 25 inch |
| Resolution | QHD | 2560 x 1440p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 60Hz |
| Response Time | 5ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 1x HDMI, 2x USB 2.0 |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The BenQ PD2500Q actually has a 25 inch screen and it’s one of the best vertical screens you can get right now. It has a QHD resolution of 2560×1440, and sRGB color coverage of 100%. It’s perfect for designers, photographers, and engineers of all levels, as well as for anyone who wants great visual quality. There’s even a CAD/CAM and animation mode. The monitor definitely has a modern look, and the stand performs very well when switching from a horizontal landscape to a vertical portrait.
5. ASUS VG259QR – Best Gaming 24 Inch
Key Features:
- 24 inch screen
- 165Hz refresh rate
- 0.5ms response time
| Screen Size | 24 inch |
| Resolution | FHD | 1920 x 1080p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 165Hz |
| Response Time | 0.5ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 2x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The ASUS VG248QG packs quite a punch in it’s 24.5 inch frame. It intimidates with it’s 165Hz refresh rate, 0.5ms response time, Adaptive-Sync, and G-SYNC. It’s kind of like a real-life wolverine (animal). You can actually do a lot of damage to your pc opponents with this little beast.
6. SAMSUNG SR650 – Best Overall 27 Inch
Key Features:
- 27 inch screen
- FHD, 1920×1080
- Multiple connectivity ports
| Screen Size | 27 inch |
| Resolution | FHD | 1920 x 1080p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 75Hz |
| Response Time | 5ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 1x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort, 1x VGA, 2x USB 2.0., 2x USB 3.0 |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The SAMSUNG SR650 is especially good at productivity related tasks and projects. It’s perfect for a home office. It has multiple ports including: HDMI, DisplayPort, VGA, and a built-in USB hub featuring USB 2.0 and USB 3.0. It also has a stylish and modern design, with minimal bezels surrounding the display. The SR650 has a great stand, with a strong metal body and various levels of adjustability — you can rotate the screen 90 degrees to use in portrait mode, adjust the height up and down, and tilt and swivel to your desired setup.
7. ASUS VN279QL – Best ASUS 27 Inch
Key Features:
- 27 inch screen
- FHD, 1920×1080
- Minimal bezels
- Highly adjustable stand
| Screen Size | 27 inch |
| Resolution | FHD | 1920 x 1080p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 60Hz |
| Response Time | 5ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Swivel, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 1x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort, 1x VGA |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The features of the ASUS VN279QL may actually surprise most buyers when you consider it’s ultra low price tag. It’s proof that ASUS is striving to give people as much as they can for their money.
The bezels are considerably slim on all 4 sides which is great for utilizing a multiple monitor setup. The screen size of 27 inches puts it at the larger end of a still standard size, which means you work with a large viewing area without sacrificing too much desk space. The refresh rate and response time is easily good enough to provide a fluid experience for just about any game.
The feature that really makes this monitor stand above many (at varying price levels), is it’s incredible adjustability & versatility. You can tilt, swivel, adjust the height, and even physically rotate the monitor from horizontal (landscape) to vertical (portrait).
8. Dell Ultrasharp U2719DX – Best Dell 27 Inch
Key Features:
- 27 inch screen
- WQHD, 2560×1440
- 99% sRGB
| Screen Size | 27 inch |
| Resolution | QHD | 2560 x 1440p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 60Hz |
| Response Time | 5ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 1x HDMI, 2x DisplayPort, 2x USB 3.0 |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The Dell Ultrasharp U2719DX lives up to it’s name by providing stunningly sharp details with it’s 27 inch WQHD screen with a resolution of 2560×1440. The “Infinity Edge” bezels are some of the thinnest on the market. Making it perfect for multiple Ultrasharp monitors lined up side-by-side. There’s excellent color coverage too, 99% sRGB to be exact. That’s not only helpful for photographers and designers, but for everyone that appreciates high visual quality and consistency.
9. LG 27UN850-W – Best LG 27 Inch
Key Features:
- 27 inch screen
- UHD, 4K, 3840×2160
- 99% sRGB
- Multiple connectivity ports
| Screen Size | 27 inch |
| Resolution | UHD | 3840 x 2160p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 60Hz |
| Response Time | 5ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 2x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort, 2x USB 3.0. 1x USB-C |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The LG 27UN859-W does not disappoint with visual quality either thanks to it’s ultrafine UHD, 4K, 3840×2160 display. In addition to the marvelous 4K screen, the LG builds provides a hub for productivity and entertainment
10. LG 27GL83A-B – Best Gaming 27 Inch
Key Features:
- 27 inch screen
- QHD, 2560x1440p
- 144Hz refresh rate
- 1ms Response time
| Screen Size | 27 inch |
| Resolution | QHD | 2560 x 1440p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 144Hz |
| Response Time | 1ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 2x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
If you’re a more serious gamer, how does a 27 inch, 2K monitor with a 144Hz refresh rate, 1ms response time, and G Sync sound? It should be music to your ears, especially when it comes from a reputable brand such as LG. This literally is a monitor geared for gamers, and it has the tech to back it up.
You will be light years ahead of most of your competitors with the integrated technologies. The 1ms response time and 144Hz refresh rate will provide an essentially instantaneous response to your environment. Incredibly useful for first person shooters and other high speed action games.
The high color coverage of sRGB 99% ensures that you experience the game the way it was meant to be, with accurate vibrant colors. The integration of NVIDIA G Sync removes and reduces screen tearing and stuttering to ensure that you don’t miss a beat whilst in the heat of battle. The incredible contrasts give you an edge in areas with low light, where some enemies may literally not be able to see you, but you can see them.
If you are serious about gaming, you need a serious gaming monitor, and this is one of the best.
11. BenQ PD3200Q – Best Overall 32 Inch
Key Features:
- 32 inch screen
- QHD, 1440p
- VA panel
- 100% sRGB and Rec. 709
| Screen Size | 32 inch |
| Resolution | QHD | 2560 x 1440p |
| Display Technology | VA |
| Refresh Rate | 75Hz |
| Response Time | 5ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 1x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort, 1x DVI-D, 2x USB 3.0, 1x SD Reader |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The BenQ PD3200Q is incredibly versatile and a CAD designer’s dream. There’s even a CAD/CAM to make it official. Of course all you have to be is someone who sincerely appreciates detail and accurate color coverage to pick up the BenQ PD3200Q. Which includes: graphic designers, videographers, and photographers, to name a few. All of the above will love the 100% sRGB coverage, professional modes, darkroom mode, animation mode, and yes… the aforementioned CAD/CAM mode.
12. LG 32BN88U-B – Best LG 32 Inch
Key Features:
- 32 inch screen
- UHD/4K, 3840×2160
- Ergonomic stand with c-clamp
- Multiple connectivity ports
- DCI-P3 95%
| Screen Size | 32 inch |
| Resolution | UHD/4K | 3840 x 2160p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 60Hz |
| Response Time | 5ms |
| Adjustments | Extend, Retract, Swivel, Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 2x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort, 2x USB 3.0, 1x USB-C |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The LG 32BN88U-B is a premium 32 inch, 4K monitor that screams professionalism (in a very good way). In many ways, the LG 32BN88U-B is the ultimate vertical monitor. It easily has the highest amount of adjustability, with the ability to extend, retract, swivel, pivot, tilt, and adjust the height. This is all possible because of the included c-clamp and monitor arm. Business professionals, designers, photographers, and videographers will get the most use out of the highly adjustable stand. They will also love the DCI-P3 95% color calibration, HDR10, and 4K resolution for ultra detailed projects.
13. LG 32BN88U-B – Best LG Gaming 32 Inch
Key Features:
- 32 inch screen
- 165Hz refresh rate
- 1ms Response time
| Screen Size | 32 inch |
| Resolution | QHD | 2560 x 1440p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 165Hz |
| Response Time | 1ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 2x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The LG 32GN650-B is similar to the aforementioned LG 27GL83A, yet manages to pack in even higher specs in the massive display. It’s a 32 inch, QHD, gaming beast with a lightning fast 165Hz refresh rate and 1ms response time. The AMD FreeSync keeps all the fast paced action in-line and smooth.
14. AOC C32G2 – Best AOC Gaming 32 Inch
Key Features:
- 32 inch screen
- 165Hz refresh rate
- 1ms Response time
| Screen Size | 32 inch |
| Resolution | QHD | 2560 x 1440p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 165Hz |
| Response Time | 1ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 2x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort, 1x VGA |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
AOC might not be quite the household name as some other brands, but with the AOC C32G2 you can save quite a bit of cash. It’s packed with features including: a 165Hz refresh rate, 1ms response time, and FreeSync. What makes this monitor unique is the 1500R curved VA panel, and the ultra affordable price.
15. Sceptre E325B-QPN168 – Best Sceptre Gaming 32 Inch
Key Features:
- 32 inch screen
- 144Hz refresh rate
- 1ms Response time
| Screen Size | 32 inch |
| Resolution | QHD | 2560 x 1440p |
| Display Technology | IPS |
| Refresh Rate | 144Hz |
| Response Time | 1ms |
| Adjustments | Pivot, Height, Tilt |
| Connectivity Ports | 3x HDMI, 1x DisplayPort, 1x Audio Out (Headphones/Speakers) |
| VESA Compatible | Yes |
The Sceptre E325B-QPN168 combines affordability and an incredible amount of gaming features into one 32 inch display. It has a 144hz refresh rate, 1ms response time, built-in-speakers, HDR400, and plenty of connectivity options. What more could you want in this price range?
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A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial form.
vertical monitor
A monitor usually comprises the display device, circuitry, casing, and power supply.
vertical monitor
The display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD) with LED backlighting having replaced cold-cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) backlighting.
vertical monitor
Older monitors used a cathode ray tube (CRT). Monitors are connected to the computer via VGA, Digital Visual Interface (DVI), HDMI, DisplayPort, Thunderbolt, low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS) or other proprietary connectors and signals.
best vertical monitor
Originally, computer monitors were used for data processing while television sets were used for entertainment.
vertical monitor
From the 1980s onwards, computers (and their monitors) have been used for both data processing and entertainment, while televisions have implemented some computer functionality.
vertical monitor
The common aspect ratio of televisions, and computer monitors, has changed from 4:3 to 16:10, to 16:9.
vertical monitors
Modern computer monitors are easily interchangeable with conventional television sets. However, as computer monitors do not necessarily include integrated speakers, it may not be possible to use a computer monitor without external components.[1]
portrait monitor
Early electronic computers were fitted with a panel of light bulbs where the state of each particular bulb would indicate the on/off state of a particular register bit inside the computer. This allowed the engineers operating the computer to monitor the internal state of the machine, so this panel of lights came to be known as the ‘monitor’. As early monitors were only capable of displaying a very limited amount of information and were very transient, they were rarely considered for program output. Instead, a line printer was the primary output device, while the monitor was limited to keeping track of the program’s operation.[citation needed]
best monitor for vertical use
As technology developed engineers realized that the output of a CRT display was more flexible than a panel of light bulbs and eventually, by giving control of what was displayed in the program itself, the monitor itself became a powerful output device in its own right.[citation needed]
vertical monitor
Computer monitors were formerly known as visual display units (VDU), but this term had mostly fallen out of use by the 1990s.
rotating monitor
The first computer monitors used cathode ray tubes (CRTs). Prior to the advent of home computers in the late 1970s, it was common for a video display terminal (VDT) using a CRT to be physically integrated with a keyboard and other components of the system in a single large chassis. The display was monochrome and far less sharp and detailed than on a modern flat-panel monitor, necessitating the use of relatively large text and severely limiting the amount of information that could be displayed at one time. High-resolution CRT displays were developed for the specialized military, industrial and scientific applications but they were far too costly for general use.
vertical computer monitor
Some of the earliest home computers (such as the TRS-80 and Commodore PET) were limited to monochrome CRT displays, but color display capability was already a standard feature of the pioneering Apple II, introduced in 1977, and the specialty of the more graphically sophisticated Atari 800, introduced in 1979. Either computer could be connected to the antenna terminals of an ordinary color TV set or used with a purpose-made CRT color monitor for optimum resolution and color quality. Lagging several years behind, in 1981 IBM introduced the Color Graphics Adapter, which could display four colors with a resolution of 320 x 200 pixels, or it could produce 640 x 200 pixels with two colors. In 1984 IBM introduced the Enhanced Graphics Adapter which was capable of producing 16 colors and had a resolution of 640 x 350.[2]
monitor vertical
By the end of the 1980s color CRT monitors that could clearly display 1024 x 768 pixels were widely available and increasingly affordable. During the following decade, maximum display resolutions gradually increased and prices continued to fall. CRT technology remained dominant in the PC monitor market into the new millennium partly because it was cheaper to produce and offered to view angles close to 180 degrees.[3] CRTs still offer some image quality advantages[clarification needed] over LCDs but improvements to the latter have made them much less obvious. The dynamic range of early LCD panels was very poor, and although text and other motionless graphics were sharper than on a CRT, an LCD characteristic known as pixel lag caused moving graphics to appear noticeably smeared and blurry.
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
There are multiple technologies that have been used to implement liquid crystal displays (LCD). Throughout the 1990s, the primary use of LCD technology as computer monitors was in laptops where the lower power consumption, lighter weight, and smaller physical size of LCDs justified the higher price versus a CRT. Commonly, the same laptop would be offered with an assortment of display options at increasing price points: (active or passive) monochrome, passive color, or active matrix color (TFT). As volume and manufacturing capability have improved, the monochrome and passive color technologies were dropped from most product lines.
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
TFT-LCD is a variant of LCD which is now the dominant technology used for computer monitors.[4]
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
The first standalone LCDs appeared in the mid-1990s selling for high prices. As prices declined over a period of years they became more popular, and by 1997 were competing with CRT monitors. Among the first desktop LCD computer monitors was the Eizo L66 in the mid-1990s, the Apple Studio Display in 1998, and the Apple Cinema Display in 1999. In 2003, TFT-LCDs outsold CRTs for the first time, becoming the primary technology used for computer monitors.[3] The main advantages of LCDs over CRT displays are that LCDs consume less power, take up much less space, and are considerably lighter. The now common active matrix TFT-LCD technology also has less flickering than CRTs, which reduces eye strain.[5] On the other hand, CRT monitors have superior contrast, have a superior response time, are able to use multiple screen resolutions natively, and there is no discernible flicker if the refresh rate[6] is set to a sufficiently high value. LCD monitors have now very high temporal accuracy and can be used for vision research.[7]
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
High dynamic range (HDR)[6] has been implemented into high-end LCD monitors to improve color accuracy. Since around the late 2000s, widescreen LCD monitors have become popular, in part due to television series, motion pictures and video games transitioning to high-definition (HD), which makes standard-width monitors unable to display them correctly as they either stretch or crop HD content. These types of monitors may also display it in the proper width, however they usually fill the extra space at the top and bottom of the image with black bars. Other advantages of widescreen monitors over standard-width monitors is that they make work more productive by displaying more of a user’s documents and images, and allow displaying toolbars with documents. They also have a larger viewing area, with a typical widescreen monitor having a 16:9 aspect ratio, compared to the 4:3 aspect ratio of a typical standard-width monitor.
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
The performance of a monitor is measured by the following parameters:
- Luminance is measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2 also called a Nit).
- Color depth is measured in bits per primary color or bits for all colors.
- Gamut is measured as coordinates in the CIE 1931 color space. The names sRGB or AdobeRGB are shorthand notations.
- Aspect ratio is the ratio of the horizontal length to the vertical length. Monitors usually have the aspect ratio 4:3, 5:4, 16:10 or 16:9.
- Viewable image size is usually measured diagonally, but the actual widths and heights are more informative since they are not affected by the aspect ratio in the same way. For CRTs, the viewable size is typically 1 in (25 mm) smaller than the tube itself.
- Display resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed. For a given display size, maximum resolution is limited by dot pitch.
- Dot pitch is the distance between sub-pixels of the same color in millimeters. In general, the smaller the dot pitch, the sharper the picture will appear.
- Refresh rate is the number of times in a second that a display is illuminated. Maximum refresh rate is limited by response time.
- Response time is the time a pixel in a monitor takes to go from active (white) to inactive (black) and back to active (white) again, measured in milliseconds. Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts.
- Contrast ratio is the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color (white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the monitor is capable of producing.
- Power consumption is measured in watts.
- Delta-E: Color accuracy is measured in delta-E; the lower the delta-E, the more accurate the color representation. A delta-E of below 1 is imperceptible to the human eye. Delta-Es of 2 to 4 are considered good and require a sensitive eye to spot the difference.
- Viewing angle is the maximum angle at which images on the monitor can be viewed, without excessive degradation to the image. It is measured in degrees horizontally and vertically.best vertical monitor 2021
- On two-dimensional display devices such as computer monitors the display size or view able image size is the actual amount of screen space that is available to display a picture, video or working space, without obstruction from the case or other aspects of the unit’s design. The main measurements for display devices are: width, height, total area and the diagonal.
rotating monitor
The size of a display is usually by monitor manufacturers given by the diagonal, i.e. the distance between two opposite screen corners. This method of measurement is inherited from the method used for the first generation of CRT television, when picture tubes with circular faces were in common use. Being circular, it was the external diameter of the glass envelope that described their size. Since these circular tubes were used to display rectangular images, the diagonal measurement of the rectangular image was smaller than the diameter of the tube’s face (due to the thickness of the glass). This method continued even when cathode ray tubes were manufactured as rounded rectangles; it had the advantage of being a single number specifying the size, and was not confusing when the aspect ratio was universally 4:3.
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
With the introduction of flat panel technology, the diagonal measurement became the actual diagonal of the visible display. This meant that an eighteen-inch LCD had a larger visible area than an eighteen-inch cathode ray tube.
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
The estimation of the monitor size by the distance between opposite corners does not take into account the display aspect ratio, so that for example a 16:9 21-inch (53 cm) widescreen display has less area, than a 21-inch (53 cm) 4:3 screen. The 4:3 screen has dimensions of 16.8 in × 12.6 in (43 cm × 32 cm) and area 211 sq in (1,360 cm2), while the widescreen is 18.3 in × 10.3 in (46 cm × 26 cm), 188 sq in (1,210 cm2).
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial form. A monitor usually comprises the display device, circuitry, casing, and power supply. The display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD) with LED backlighting having replaced cold-cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) backlighting. Older monitors used a cathode ray tube (CRT). Monitors are connected to the computer via VGA, Digital Visual Interface (DVI), HDMI, DisplayPort, Thunderbolt, low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS) or other proprietary connectors and signals.
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
Originally, computer monitors were used for data processing while television sets were used for entertainment. From the 1980s onwards, computers (and their monitors) have been used for both data processing and entertainment, while televisions have implemented some computer functionality. The common aspect ratio of televisions, and computer monitors, has changed from 4:3 to 16:10, to 16:9.
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
Modern computer monitors are easily interchangeable with conventional television sets. However, as computer monitors do not necessarily include integrated speakers, it may not be possible to use a computer monitor without external components.[1]
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
Early electronic computers were fitted with a panel of light bulbs where the state of each particular bulb would indicate the on/off state of a particular register bit inside the computer. This allowed the engineers operating the computer to monitor the internal state of the machine, so this panel of lights came to be known as the ‘monitor’. As early monitors were only capable of displaying a very limited amount of information and were very transient, they were rarely considered for program output. Instead, a line printer was the primary output device, while the monitor was limited to keeping track of the program’s operation.[citation needed]
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
As technology developed engineers realized that the output of a CRT display was more flexible than a panel of light bulbs and eventually, by giving control of what was displayed in the program itself, the monitor itself became a powerful output device in its own right.[citation needed]
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
Computer monitors were formerly known as visual display units (VDU), but this term had mostly fallen out of use by the 1990s.
best vertical monitors
The first computer monitors used cathode ray tubes (CRTs). Prior to the advent of home computers in the late 1970s, it was common for a video display terminal (VDT) using a CRT to be physically integrated with a keyboard and other components of the system in a single large chassis. The display was monochrome and far less sharp and detailed than on a modern flat-panel monitor, necessitating the use of relatively large text and severely limiting the amount of information that could be displayed at one time. High-resolution CRT displays were developed for the specialized military, industrial and scientific applications but they were far too costly for general use.
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
Some of the earliest home computers (such as the TRS-80 and Commodore PET) were limited to monochrome CRT displays, but color display capability was already a standard feature of the pioneering Apple II, introduced in 1977, and the specialty of the more graphically sophisticated Atari 800, introduced in 1979. Either computer could be connected to the antenna terminals of an ordinary color TV set or used with a purpose-made CRT color monitor for optimum resolution and color quality. Lagging several years behind, in 1981 IBM introduced the Color Graphics Adapter, which could display four colors with a resolution of 320 x 200 pixels, or it could produce 640 x 200 pixels with two colors. In 1984 IBM introduced the Enhanced Graphics Adapter which was capable of producing 16 colors and had a resolution of 640 x 350.[2]
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
By the end of the 1980s color CRT monitors that could clearly display 1024 x 768 pixels were widely available and increasingly affordable. During the following decade, maximum display resolutions gradually increased and prices continued to fall. CRT technology remained dominant in the PC monitor market into the new millennium partly because it was cheaper to produce and offered to view angles close to 180 degrees.[3] CRTs still offer some image quality advantages[clarification needed] over LCDs but improvements to the latter have made them much less obvious. The dynamic range of early LCD panels was very poor, and although text and other motionless graphics were sharper than on a CRT, an LCD characteristic known as pixel lag caused moving graphics to appear noticeably smeared and blurry.
A liquid crystal display (LCD) computer monitor
A cathode-ray tube (CRT) computer monitor
A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial form. A monitor usually comprises the visual display, circuitry, casing, and power supply. The display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film.
best vertical monitors
There are multiple technologies that have been used to implement liquid crystal displays (LCD). Throughout the 1990s, the primary use of LCD technology as computer monitors was in laptops where the lower power consumption, lighter weight, and smaller physical size of LCDs justified the higher price versus a CRT. Commonly, the same laptop would be offered with an assortment of display options at increasing price points: (active or passive) monochrome, passive color, or active matrix color (TFT). As volume and manufacturing capability have improved, the monochrome and passive color technologies were dropped from most product lines.
best vertical monitors
TFT-LCD is a variant of LCD which is now the dominant technology used for computer monitors.[4]
best vertical monitors
The first standalone LCDs appeared in the mid-1990s selling for high prices. As prices declined over a period of years they became more popular, and by 1997 were competing with CRT monitors. Among the first desktop LCD computer monitors was the Eizo L66 in the mid-1990s, the Apple Studio Display in 1998, and the Apple Cinema Display in 1999. In 2003, TFT-LCDs outsold CRTs for the first time, becoming the primary technology used for computer monitors.[3] The main advantages of LCDs over CRT displays are that LCDs consume less power, take up much less space, and are considerably lighter. The now common active matrix TFT-LCD technology also has less flickering than CRTs, which reduces eye strain.[5] On the other hand, CRT monitors have superior contrast, have a superior response time, are able to use multiple screen resolutions natively, and there is no discernible flicker if the refresh rate[6] is set to a sufficiently high value. LCD monitors have now very high temporal accuracy and can be used for vision research.[7]
best vertical monitors
High dynamic range (HDR)[6] has been implemented into high-end LCD monitors to improve color accuracy. Since around the late 2000s, widescreen LCD monitors have become popular, in part due to television series, motion pictures and video games transitioning to high-definition (HD), which makes standard-width monitors unable to display them correctly as they either stretch or crop HD content. These types of monitors may also display it in the proper width, however they usually fill the extra space at the top and bottom of the image with black bars. Other advantages of widescreen monitors over standard-width monitors is that they make work more productive by displaying more of a user’s documents and images, and allow displaying toolbars with documents. They also have a larger viewing area, with a typical widescreen monitor having a 16:9 aspect ratio, compared to the 4:3 aspect ratio of a typical standard-width monitor.
Rotating Monitor
Early electronic computers were fitted with a panel of light bulbs where the state of each particular bulb would indicate the on/off state of a particular register bit inside the computer. This allowed the engineers operating the computer to monitor the internal state of the machine, so this panel of lights came to be known as the ‘monitor’. As early monitors were only capable of displaying a very limited amount of information and were very transient, they were rarely considered for program output. Instead, a line printer was the primary output device, while the monitor was limited to keeping track of the program’s operation.[citation needed]
As technology developed engineers realized that the output of a CRT display was more flexible than a panel of light bulbs and eventually, by giving control of what was displayed in the program itself, the monitor itself became a powerful output device in its own right.[citation needed]
Computer monitors were formerly known as visual display units (VDU), but this term had mostly fallen out of use by the 1990s.
Rotating Monitor
Further information: Comparison of CRT, LCD, Plasma, and OLED and History of display technology.
Multiple technologies have been used for computer monitors. Until the 21st century most used cathode ray tubes but they have largely been superseded by LCD monitors.
Vertical Monitors
The first computer monitors used cathode ray tubes (CRTs). Prior to the advent of home computers in the late 1970s, it was common for a video display terminal (VDT) using a CRT to be physically integrated with a keyboard and other components of the system in a single large chassis. The display was monochrome and far less sharp and detailed than on a modern flat-panel monitor, necessitating the use of relatively large text and severely limiting the amount of information that could be displayed at one time. High-resolution CRT displays were developed for the specialized military, industrial and scientific applications but they were far too costly for general use.
best vertical monitors
Some of the earliest home computers (such as the TRS-80 and Commodore PET) were limited to monochrome CRT displays, but color display capability was already a standard feature of the pioneering Apple II, introduced in 1977, and the specialty of the more graphically sophisticated Atari 800, introduced in 1979. Either computer could be connected to the antenna terminals of an ordinary color TV set or used with a purpose-made CRT color monitor for optimum resolution and color quality. Lagging several years behind, in 1981 IBM introduced the Color Graphics Adapter, which could display four colors with a resolution of 320 x 200 pixels, or it could produce 640 x 200 pixels with two colors. In 1984 IBM introduced the Enhanced Graphics Adapter which was capable of producing 16 colors and had a resolution of 640 x 350.[2]
best vertical monitors
By the end of the 1980s color CRT monitors that could clearly display 1024 x 768 pixels were widely available and increasingly affordable. During the following decade, maximum display resolutions gradually increased and prices continued to fall. CRT technology remained dominant in the PC monitor market into the new millennium partly because it was cheaper to produce and offered to view angles close to 180 degrees.[3] CRTs still offer some image quality advantages[clarification needed] over LCDs but improvements to the latter have made them much less obvious. The dynamic range of early LCD panels was very poor, and although text and other motionless graphics were sharper than on a CRT, an LCD characteristic known as pixel lag caused moving graphics to appear noticeably smeared and blurry.
Vertical Monitors
A vertical monitor can be rotated or pivoted 90 degrees.
best vertical monitors
There are multiple technologies that have been used to implement liquid crystal displays (LCD). Throughout the 1990s, the primary use of LCD technology as computer monitors was in laptops where the lower power consumption, lighter weight, and smaller physical size of LCDs justified the higher price versus a CRT. Commonly, the same laptop would be offered with an assortment of display options at increasing price points: (active or passive) monochrome, passive color, or active matrix color (TFT). As volume and manufacturing capability have improved, the monochrome and passive color technologies were dropped from most product lines.
best vertical monitors
TFT-LCD is a variant of LCD which is now the dominant technology used for computer monitors.[4]
best vertical monitors
The first standalone LCDs appeared in the mid-1990s selling for high prices. As prices declined over a period of years they became more popular, and by 1997 were competing with CRT monitors. Among the first desktop LCD computer monitors was the Eizo L66 in the mid-1990s, the Apple Studio Display in 1998, and the Apple Cinema Display in 1999. In 2003, TFT-LCDs outsold CRTs for the first time, becoming the primary technology used for computer monitors.[3] The main advantages of LCDs over CRT displays are that LCDs consume less power, take up much less space, and are considerably lighter. The now common active matrix TFT-LCD technology also has less flickering than CRTs, which reduces eye strain.[5] On the other hand, CRT monitors have superior contrast, have a superior response time, are able to use multiple screen resolutions natively, and there is no discernible flicker if the refresh rate[6] is set to a sufficiently high value. LCD monitors have now very high temporal accuracy and can be used for vision research.[7]
best vertical monitors
High dynamic range (HDR)[6] has been implemented into high-end LCD monitors to improve color accuracy. Since around the late 2000s, widescreen LCD monitors have become popular, in part due to television series, motion pictures and video games transitioning to high-definition (HD), which makes standard-width monitors unable to display them correctly as they either stretch or crop HD content. These types of monitors may also display it in the proper width, however they usually fill the extra space at the top and bottom of the image with black bars. Other advantages of widescreen monitors over standard-width monitors is that they make work more productive by displaying more of a user’s documents and images, and allow displaying toolbars with documents. They also have a larger viewing area, with a typical widescreen monitor having a 16:9 aspect ratio, compared to the 4:3 aspect ratio of a typical standard-width monitor.
Rotating Monitor
A computer is a machine that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming. Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks. A “complete” computer including the hardware, the operating system (main software), and peripheral equipment required and used for “full” operation can be referred to as a computer system. This term may as well be used for a group of computers that are connected and work together, in particular a computer network or computer cluster.
Rotating Monitor
Computers are used as control systems for a wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls, factory devices such as industrial robots and computer-aided design, and also general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones. The Internet is run on computers and it connects hundreds of millions of other computers and their users.
Rotating Monitor
Early computers were only conceived as calculating devices. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations. Early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century.
Rotatable Monitor
The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The first semiconductor transistors in the late 1940s were followed by the silicon-based MOSFET (MOS transistor) and monolithic integrated circuit (IC) chip technologies in the late 1950s, leading to the microprocessor and the microcomputer revolution in the 1970s. The speed, power and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically ever since then, with MOS transistor counts increasing at a rapid pace (as predicted by Moore’s law), leading to the Digital Revolution during the late 20th to early 21st centuries.
Rotating Monitor
Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU) in the form of a metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) microprocessor, along with some type of computer memory, typically MOS semiconductor memory chips. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information.
Rotatable Monitor
Peripheral devices include input devices (keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.), output devices (monitor screens, printers, etc.), and input/output devices that perform both functions (e.g., the 2000s-era touchscreen). Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.
Rotating Monitor
Vertical Monitors
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known use of the word “computer” was in 1613 in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by English writer Richard Braithwait: “I haue [sic] read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer [sic] breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number.” This usage of the term referred to a human computer, a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. During the latter part of this period women were often hired as computers because they could be paid less than their male counterparts.[1] By 1943, most human computers were women.[2]
Vertical Monitors
The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of “computer” in the 1640s, meaning “one who calculates”; this is an “agent noun from compute (v.)”. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean “‘calculating machine’ (of any type) is from 1897.” The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the “modern use” of the term, to mean “programmable digital electronic computer” dates from “1945 under this name; [in a] theoretical [sense] from 1937, as Turing machine“.[3]
Vertical Monitors
A rotating monitor can be rotated or pivoted 90 degrees.
Pre-20th century
The Ishango bone, a bone tool dating back to prehistoric Africa.
Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers.[4][5] The use of counting rods is one example.
Vertical Monitors
Rotating Monitor
The Chinese suanpan (算盘). The number represented on this abacus is 6,302,715,408.
Rotatable Monitor
The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from devices used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.[6]
Vertical Monitors
Rotating Monitor
The Antikythera mechanism, dating back to ancient Greece circa 150–100 BC, is an early analog computing device.
The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog “computer”, according to Derek J. de Solla Price.[7] It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to c. 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.
Vertical Monitors
Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the early 11th century.[8] The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy.
Rotatable Monitor
An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer[9][10] and gear-wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan, Persia in 1235.[11] Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe,[12] an early fixed-wired knowledge processing machine[13] with a gear train and gear-wheels,[14] c. 1000 AD.
Vertical Monitors
The sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.
Rotatable Monitor
The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage.
Rotatable Monitor
A slide rule.
The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Slide rules with special scales are still used for quick performance of routine calculations, such as the E6B circular slide rule used for time and distance calculations on light aircraft.
Vertical Monitors
In the 1770s, Pierre Jaquet-Droz, a Swiss watchmaker, built a mechanical doll (automaton) that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically “programmed” to read instructions. Along with two other complex machines, the doll is at the Musée d’Art et d’Histoire of Neuchâtel, Switzerland, and still operates.[15]
Monitor Rotates
In 1831–1835, mathematician and engineer Giovanni Plana devised a Perpetual Calendar machine, which, though a system of pulleys and cylinders and over, could predict the perpetual calendar for every year from AD 0 (that is, 1 BC) to AD 4000, keeping track of leap years and varying day length. The tide-predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.
Monitor Rotates
The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876, Lord Kelvin had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators.[16]
Rotatable Monitor
In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.
Rotating Monitor
Rotating Monitor
A portion of Babbage’s Difference engine.
Rotating Monitor
Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the “father of the computer“,[17] he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible.
Rotatable Monitor
The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.[18][19]
Rotating Monitor
The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand – this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding.
Rotatable Monitor
Babbage’s failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to political and financial difficulties as well as his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine’s computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906.
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Main article: Analog computer
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Sir William Thomson‘s third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81
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During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation.
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However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.[20] The first modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machine, invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872. The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin.[16]
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The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer, built by H. L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927. This built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious. By the 1950s, the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in some specialized applications such as education (control systems) and aircraft (slide rule).
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By 1938, the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computer, which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well.
Monitor Rotates
Replica of Zuse‘s Z3, the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer.
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Early digital computers were electromechanical; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2, created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1939, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.[21]
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In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world’s first working electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer.[22][23] The Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5–10 Hz.[24]
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Program code was supplied on punched film while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating point numbers. Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage‘s earlier design), using a binary system meant that Zuse’s machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time.[25] The Z3 was not itself a universal computer but could be extended to be Turing complete.[26][27]
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Vacuum tubes and digital electronic circuits
Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog.
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The engineer Tommy Flowers, working at the Post Office Research Station in London in the 1930s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange.
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Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes.[20]
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In the US, John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed and tested the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942,[28] the first “automatic electronic digital computer”.[29]
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This design was also all-electronic and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory.[30]
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Colossus, the first electronic digital programmable computing device, was used to break German ciphers during World War II.
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During World War II, the British at Bletchley Park achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption machine, Enigma, was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical bombes which were often run by women.[31][32]
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To crack the more sophisticated German Lorenz SZ 40/42 machine, used for high-level Army communications, Max Newman and his colleagues commissioned Flowers to build the Colossus.[30]
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He spent eleven months from early August 1943 designing and building the first Colossus.[33] After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944[34] and attacked its first message on 5 August.[30]
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Colossus was the world’s first electronic digital programmable computer.[20]
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It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes).
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It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete. Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines in total).
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Colossus Mark I contained 1,500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark II with 2,400 valves, was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process.[35][36]
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ENIAC was the first electronic, Turing-complete device, and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the United States Army.
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The ENIAC[37] (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic programmable computer built in the U.S. Although the ENIAC was similar to the Colossus, it was much faster, more flexible, and it was Turing-complete.
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Like the Colossus, a “program” on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches. The programmers of the ENIAC were six women, often known collectively as the “ENIAC girls”.[38][39]
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It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words (about 80 bytes).
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Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC’s development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945.
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The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.[40]
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Concept of modern computer
The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal 1936 paper,[41] On Computable Numbers. Turing proposed a simple device that he called “Universal Computing machine” and that is now known as a universal Turing machine.
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He proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by executing instructions (program) stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. The fundamental concept of Turing’s design is the stored program, where all the instructions for computing are stored in memory. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper.[42]
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Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.
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If you want the best vertical monitor, read this article.
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Vertical Computer Monitor
A section of the Manchester Baby, the first electronic stored-program computer
Early computing machines had fixed programs. Changing its function required the re-wiring and re-structuring of the machine.[30] With the proposal of the stored-program computer this changed. A stored-program computer includes by design an instruction set and can store in memory a set of instructions (a program) that details the computation.
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The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was laid by Alan Turing in his 1936 paper. In 1945, Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His 1945 report “Proposed Electronic Calculator” was the first specification for such a device. John von Neumann at the University of Pennsylvania also circulated his First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC in 1945.[20]
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The Manchester Baby was the world’s first stored-program computer. It was built at the Victoria University of Manchester by Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 August 1948.[43] It was designed as a testbed for the Williams tube, the first random-access digital storage device.[44] Although the computer was considered “small and primitive” by the standards of its time, it was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer.[45] As soon as the Baby had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop it into a more usable computer, the Manchester Mark 1. Grace Hopper was the first person to develop a compiler for programming language.[2]
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The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1, the world’s first commercially available general-purpose computer.[46] Built by Ferranti, it was delivered to the University of Manchester in August 1951. At least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to Shell labs in Amsterdam.[47] In December 1947, the directors of British catering company J. Lyons & Company decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. The LEO I computer became operational in August 1951[48] and ran the world’s first regular routine office computer job.
Transistors
Main articles: Transistor and History of the transistor
Further information: Transistor computer and MOSFET
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Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
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The concept of a field-effect transistor was proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs, built the first working transistor, the point-contact transistor, in 1947, which was followed by Shockley’s bipolar junction transistor in 1948.[49][50] From 1955 onwards, transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the “second generation” of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.[51]
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At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves.[52] Their first transistorised computer and the first in the world, was operational by 1953, and a second version was completed there in August 1955. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. That distinction goes to the Harwell CADET of 1955,[53] built by the electronics division of the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell.[53][54]
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MOSFET (MOS transistor), showing gate (G), body (B), source (S) and drain (D) terminals. The gate is separated from the body by an insulating layer (pink).
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The metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistor (MOSFET), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.[55] It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[51] With its high scalability,[56] and much lower power consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors,[57] the MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits.[58][59]
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In addition to data processing, it also enabled the practical use of MOS transistors as memory cell storage elements, leading to the development of MOS semiconductor memory, which replaced earlier magnetic-core memory in computers.[60] The MOSFET led to the microcomputer revolution,[61] and became the driving force behind the computer revolution.[62][63] The MOSFET is the most widely used transistor in computers,[64][65] and is the fundamental building block of digital electronics.[66]
Integrated circuits
The next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the integrated circuit (IC). The idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the Ministry of Defence, Geoffrey W.A. Dummer. Dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington, D.C. on 7 August 1952.[67]
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The first working ICs were invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor.[68] Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in August 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 December 1958.[69] In his patent application of 6 August 1959, Kilby described his new device as “a body of semiconductor material … wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated”.[70][71] However, Kilby’s invention was a hybrid integrated circuit (hybrid IC), rather than a monolithic integrated circuit (IC) chip.[72] Kilby’s IC had external wire connections, which made it difficult to mass-produce.[73]
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Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby.[74] Noyce’s invention was the first true monolithic IC chip.[75][73] His chip solved many practical problems that Kilby’s had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of silicon, whereas Kilby’s chip was made of germanium. Noyce’s monolithic IC was fabricated using the planar process, developed by his colleague Jean Hoerni in early 1959. In turn, the planar process was based on the silicon surface passivation and thermal oxidation processes developed by Mohamed Atalla at Bell Labs in the late 1950s.[76][77][78]
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Modern monolithic ICs are predominantly MOS (metal-oxide-semiconductor) integrated circuits, built from MOSFETs (MOS transistors).[79] After the first MOSFET was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959,[80] Atalla first proposed the concept of the MOS integrated circuit in 1960, followed by Kahng in 1961, both noting that the MOS transistor’s ease of fabrication made it useful for integrated circuits.[51][81] The earliest experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at RCA in 1962.[82] General Microelectronics later introduced the first commercial MOS IC in 1964,[83] developed by Robert Norman.[82] Following the development of the self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOS transistor by Robert Kerwin, Donald Klein and John Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967, the first silicon-gate MOS IC with self-aligned gates was developed by Federico Faggin at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968.[84] The MOSFET has since become the most critical device component in modern ICs.[85]
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The development of the MOS integrated circuit led to the invention of the microprocessor,[86][87] and heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers. While the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term “microprocessor”, it is largely undisputed that the first single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004,[88] designed and realized by Federico Faggin with his silicon-gate MOS IC technology,[86] along with Ted Hoff, Masatoshi Shima and Stanley Mazor at Intel.[89][90] In the early 1970s, MOS IC technology enabled the integration of more than 10,000 transistors on a single chip.[59]
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System on a Chip (SoCs) are complete computers on a microchip (or chip) the size of a coin.[91] They may or may not have integrated RAM and flash memory. If not integrated, The RAM is usually placed directly above (known as Package on package) or below (on the opposite side of the circuit board) the SoC, and the flash memory is usually placed right next to the SoC, this all done to improve data transfer speeds, as the data signals don’t have to travel long distances. Since ENIAC in 1945, computers have advanced enormously, with modern SoCs (Such as the Snapdragon 865) being the size of a coin while also being hundreds of thousands of times more powerful than ENIAC, integrating billions of transistors, and consuming only a few watts of power.
Control unit
A vertical monitor is a monitor that can pivot.
Vertical Computer Monitor
Diagram showing how a particular MIPS architecture instruction would be decoded by the control system
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The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer’s various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer.[95] Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance.
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A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.[96]
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The control system’s function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:
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- Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.
- Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.
- Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
- Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.
- Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
- If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
- Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.
- Jump back to step (1).
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Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as “jumps” and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control flow).
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The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer, which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
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Main articles: Central processing unit and Microprocessor
The control unit, ALU, and registers are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components. Since the 1970s, CPUs have typically been constructed on a single MOS integrated circuit chip called a microprocessor.
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Main article: Arithmetic logic unit
The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.[97] The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to addition and subtraction, or might include multiplication, division, trigonometry functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) while others use floating point to represent real numbers, albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other (“is 64 greater than 65?”). Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR, and NOT. These can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.
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Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously.[98] Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often contain ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.
Memory
Main articles: Computer memory and Computer data storage
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Magnetic-core memory (using magnetic cores) was the computer memory of choice in the 1960s, until it was replaced by semiconductor memory (using MOS memory cells).
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A computer’s memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered “address” and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to “put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357” or to “add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595.” The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software’s responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.
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In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (28 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or −128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two’s complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
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The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer’s speed.
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Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:
- random-access memory or RAM
- read-only memory or ROM
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RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is preloaded with data and software that never changes, therefore the CPU can only read from it.
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ROM is typically used to store the computer’s initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely.
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In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer’s operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset.
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In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable.
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It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.[99]
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In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories, which are slower than registers but faster than main memory.
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Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer’s part.
Input/output (I/O)
A vertical monitor is the same as a pivoting monitor.
Portrait Monitor
Vertical Computer Monitor
Hard disk drives are common storage devices used with computers.
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I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world.[100]
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Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals.[101]
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On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer.
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Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices.
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Computer networking is another form of I/O. I/O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own CPU and memory.
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A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics.[citation needed]
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Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O. A 2016-era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry.
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Main article: Computer multitasking
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While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously.
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This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.
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One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt, which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead.
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By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later.
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If several programs are running “at the same time”. then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time.
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Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant.
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This method of multitasking is sometimes termed “time-sharing” since each program is allocated a “slice” of time in turn.
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Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer.
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Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly, in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running, but most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks.
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If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a “time slice” until the event it is waiting for has occurred.
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This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss.
Multiprocessing
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Cray designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.
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Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers.
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Multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result.
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Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers.[104]
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They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware.
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Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once.
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Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called “embarrassingly parallel” tasks.
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The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed.
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That is to say that some type of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer, and it will process them.
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Modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language.
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In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example.
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A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (gigaflops) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation.
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Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.
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Main articles: Computer program and Computer programming
Replica of the Manchester Baby, the world’s first electronic stored-program computer, at the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester, England.
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This section applies to most common RAM machine–based computers.
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In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc.
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These instructions are read from the computer’s memory and are generally carried out (executed) in the order they were given.
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However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there.
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These are called “jump” instructions (or branches).
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Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event.
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Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that “remembers” the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.
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Program execution might be likened to reading a book.
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While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest.
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Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.
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Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses.
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But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake.
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On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. The following example is written in the MIPS assembly language:
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begin: addi $8, $0, 0 # initialize sum to 0 addi $9, $0, 1 # set first number to add = 1 loop: slti $10, $9, 1000 # check if the number is less than 1000 beq $10, $0, finish # if odd number is greater than n then exit add $8, $8, $9 # update sum addi $9, $9, 1 # get next number j loop # repeat the summing process finish: add $2, $8, $0 # put sum in output register
Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second.
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In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or opcode for short).
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The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on.
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The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer’s memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes.
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This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data.
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The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer’s memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program[citation needed], architecture.
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In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer.
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Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches.
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While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (machine language) and while this technique was used with many early computers,[105] it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs.
rotatable monitor
Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember – a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer’s assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler.
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A 1970s punched card containing one line from a Fortran program. The card reads: “Z(1) = Y + W(1)” and is labeled “PROJ039” for identification purposes.
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Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques.
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Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed low-level programming languages) are generally unique to the particular architecture of a computer’s central processing unit (CPU). For instance, an ARM architecture CPU (such as may be found in a smartphone or a hand-held videogame) cannot understand the machine language of an x86 CPU that might be in a PC.[106] Historically a significant number of other cpu architectures were created and saw extensive use, notably including the MOS Technology 6502 and 6510 in addition to the Zilog Z80.
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Although considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually “compiled” into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a compiler.
Rotatable Monitor
Technology (“science of craft”, from Greek τέχνη, techne, “art, skill, cunning of hand”; and -λογία, -logia[2]) is the sum of techniques, skills, methods, and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, or it can be embedded in machines to allow for operation without detailed knowledge of their workings. Systems (e.g. machines) applying technology by taking an input, changing it according to the system’s use, and then producing an outcome are referred to as technology systems or technological systems.
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The simplest form of technology is the development and use of basic tools.
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The prehistoric discovery of how to control fire and the later Neolithic Revolution increased the available sources of food, and the invention of the wheel helped humans to travel in and control their environment.
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Developments in historic times, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale.
Rotatable Monitor
Technology has many effects. It has helped develop more advanced economies (including today’s global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class.
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Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earth’s environment.
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Innovations have always influenced the values of a society and raised new questions in the ethics of technology. Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics.
Definition and usage
The spread of paper and printing to the West, as in this printing press, helped scientists and politicians communicate their ideas easily, leading to the Age of Enlightenment; an example of technology as cultural force.
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The use of the term “technology” has changed significantly over the last 200 years.
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Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, and it was used either to refer to the description or study of the useful arts[3] or to allude to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (chartered in 1861).[4]
Portrait Monitors
The term “technology” rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution.
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The term’s meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into “technology.” In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which usually translates both terms as “technology.”
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By the 1930s, “technology” referred not only to the study of the industrial arts but to the industrial arts themselves.
Portrait Monitors
In 1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that “technology includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which we produce and use them.”[6]
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Bain’s definition remains common among scholars today, especially social scientists.
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Scientists and engineers usually prefer to define technology as applied science, rather than as the things that people make and use.
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More recently, scholars have borrowed from European philosophers of “technique” to extend the meaning of technology to various forms of instrumental reason, as in Foucault‘s work on technologies of the self (techniques de soi).
Portrait Monitors
Dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. The Merriam-Webster Learner’s Dictionary offers a definition of the term: “the use of science in industry, engineering, etc., to invent useful things or to solve problems” and “a machine, piece of equipment, method, etc., that is created by technology.”
Portrait Monitors
[8] Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 “Real World of Technology” lecture, gave another definition of the concept; it is “practice, the way we do things around here.”[9]
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The term is often used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics, rather than technology as a whole.[10] Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time, 1, defines technology in two ways: as “the pursuit of life by means other than life,” and as “organized inorganic matter.”
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Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to achieve some value.
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In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems.
Portrait Monitors
It is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator.
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Tools and machines need not be material; virtual technology, such as computer software and business methods, fall under this definition of technology.
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W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a similarly broad way as “a means to fulfill a human purpose.”[13]
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The word “technology” can also be used to refer to a collection of techniques.
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In this context, it is the current state of humanity’s knowledge of how to combine resources to produce desired products, to solve problems, fulfill needs, or satisfy wants; it includes technical methods, skills, processes, techniques, tools and raw materials.
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When combined with another term, such as “medical technology” or “space technology,” it refers to the state of the respective field’s knowledge and tools. “State-of-the-art technology” refers to the high technology available to humanity in any field.
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The invention of integrated circuits and the microprocessor (here, an Intel 4004 chip from 1971) led to the modern computer revolution.
Portrait Monitors
Technology can be viewed as an activity that forms or changes culture.[14] Additionally, technology is the application of mathematics, science, and the arts for the benefit of life as it is known.
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A modern example is the rise of communication technology, which has lessened barriers to human interaction and as a result has helped spawn new subcultures; the rise of cyberculture has at its basis the development of the Internet and the computer.
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Not all technology enhances culture in a creative way; technology can also help facilitate political oppression and war via tools such as guns. As a cultural activity, technology predates both science and engineering, each of which formalize some aspects of technological endeavor.
Science, engineering, and technology
Antoine Lavoisier experimenting with combustion generated by amplified sun light
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The distinction between science, engineering, and technology is not always clear. Science is systematic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observation and experimentation.[16]
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If you are looking for a rotatable monitor, listen up.
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The best rotatable monitor can be found here in our list. Technologies are not usually exclusively products of science, because they have to satisfy requirements such as utility, usability, and safety.[17]
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Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques from science.
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The development of technology may draw upon many fields of knowledge, including scientific, engineering, mathematical, linguistic, and historical knowledge, to achieve some practical result.
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Technology is often a consequence of science and engineering, although technology as a human activity precedes the two fields. For example, science might study the flow of electrons in electrical conductors by using already-existing tools and knowledge.
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This new-found knowledge may then be used by engineers to create new tools and machines such as semiconductors, computers, and other forms of advanced technology.
Monitors that rotate 90 degrees
If you are looking for the vertical monitor for coding, you should already be considering a vertical monitor setup. The best vertical monitor for mac is of course a rotating monitor.
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The vertical monitor for coding is great. In this sense, scientists and engineers may both be considered technologists; the three fields are often considered as one for the purposes of research and reference.[18]
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The exact relations between science and technology, in particular, have been debated by scientists, historians, and policymakers in the late 20th century, in part because the debate can inform the funding of basic and applied science.
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In the immediate wake of World War II, for example, it was widely considered in the United States that technology was simply “applied science” and that to fund basic science was to reap technological results in due time.
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An articulation of this philosophy could be found explicitly in Vannevar Bush‘s treatise on postwar science policy, Science – The Endless Frontier: “New products, new industries, and more jobs require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature …
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This essential new knowledge can be obtained only through basic scientific research.”[19]
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In the late-1960s, however, this view came under direct attack, leading towards initiatives to fund science for specific tasks (initiatives resisted by the scientific community). The issue remains contentious, though most analysts resist the model that technology is a result of scientific research.[20][21]
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Main articles: History of technology, Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering, and Timeline of historic inventions
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vertical monitor for coding
Further information: Outline of prehistoric technology
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The use of tools by early humans was partly a process of discovery and of evolution. Early humans evolved from a species of foraging hominids which were already bipedal, with a brain mass approximately one third of modern humans.
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Tool use remained relatively unchanged for most of early human history. Approximately 50,000 years ago, the use of tools and complex set of behaviors emerged, believed by many archaeologists to be connected to the emergence of fully modern language.
Stone tools
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Hand axes from the Acheulian period
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Hominids started using primitive stone tools millions of years ago.
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The earliest stone tools were little more than a fractured rock, but approximately 75,000 years ago,[25] pressure flaking provided a way to make much finer work.
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Main article: Control of fire by early humans
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The discovery and use of fire, a simple energy source with many profound uses, was a turning point in the technological evolution of humankind.
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The exact date of its discovery is not known; evidence of burnt animal bones at the Cradle of Humankind suggests that the domestication of fire occurred before 1 Ma;[27] scholarly consensus indicates that Homo erectus had controlled fire by between 500 and 400 ka.
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Fire, fueled with wood and charcoal, allowed early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten.[30]
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Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era were clothing and shelter; the adoption of both technologies cannot be dated exactly, but they were a key to humanity’s progress.
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As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380 ka, humans were constructing temporary wood huts.
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Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began to migrate out of Africa by 200 ka and into other continents such as Eurasia.[33]
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Neolithic through classical antiquity (10 ka – 300 CE)
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An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools
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Human’s technological ascent began in earnest in what is known as the Neolithic Period (“New Stone Age”). The invention of polished stone axes was a major advance that allowed forest clearance on a large scale to create farms.
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This use of polished stone axes increased greatly in the Neolithic, but were originally used in the preceding Mesolithic in some areas such as Ireland.[34]
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Agriculture fed larger populations, and the transition to sedentism allowed simultaneously raising more children, as infants no longer needed to be carried, as nomadic ones must. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could to the hunter-gatherer economy.
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With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in labor specialization.
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What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as Uruk, and the first civilizations, such as Sumer.
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Is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly hierarchical social structures and specialized labor, of trade and war amongst adjacent cultures, and the need for collective action to overcome environmental challenges such as irrigation, are all thought to have played a role.[38]
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Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows and provided, for the first time, the ability to smelt and forge gold, copper, silver, and lead – native metals found in relatively pure form in nature.[39]
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The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone, and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of Neolithic times (about 10 ka).[40]
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Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery of alloys such as bronze and brass (about 4000 BCE). The first uses of iron alloys such as steel dates to around 1800 BCE.[41][42]
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Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it.
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vertical monitor for coding
A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial form. A monitor usually comprises the visual display, circuitry, casing, and power supply. The display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film
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Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar reactionary movements criticize the pervasiveness of technology, arguing that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the human condition.
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High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem(s) to be solved by the final program.
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It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer.
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A display device is an output device for presentation of information in visual[1] or tactile form (the latter used for example in tactile electronic displays for blind people).[2] When the input information that is supplied has an electrical signal the display is called an electronic display.
Common applications for electronic visual displays are television sets or computer monitors.
Types of electronic displays
In use
These are the technologies used to create the various displays in use today.
- Electroluminescent (ELD) display
- Liquid crystal display (LCD)
- Light-emitting diode (LED) display
- Plasma (PDP) display
- Quantum dot (QLED) display
Cathode ray tubes were also formerly widely used.
Segment displays
Digital clocks display changing numbers.
Some displays can show only digits or alphanumeric characters. They are called segment displays, because they are composed of several segments that switch on and off to give appearance of desired glyph. The segments are usually single LEDs or liquid crystals. They are mostly used in digital watches and pocket calculators. There are several types:
The common segment displays shown side by side: 7-segment, 9-segment, 14-segment and 16-segment displays.
- Seven-segment display (most common, digits only)
- Fourteen-segment display
- Sixteen-segment display
HD44780 LCD controller is a widely accepted protocol for LCDs.
Underlying technologies of segment displays
- Incandescent filaments
- Vacuum fluorescent display
- Cold cathode gas discharge
- Light-emitting diode (LED)
- Liquid crystal display (LCD)
- Physical vane with electromagnetic activation
Full-area 2-dimensional displays
2-dimensional displays that cover a full area (usually a rectangle) are also called video displays, since it is the main modality of presenting video.
Applications of full-area 2-dimensional displays
Full-area 2-dimensional displays are used in, for example:
- Television set
- Computer monitors
- Head-mounted displays, Heads-up displays and Virtual reality headsets
- Broadcast reference monitor
- Medical monitors
- Mobile displays (for mobile devices)
- Smartphone displays (for smartphones)
Underlying technologies of full-area 2-dimensional displays
Underlying technologies for full-area 2-dimensional displays include:
- Cathode ray tube display (CRT)
- Light-emitting diode display (LED)
- Electroluminescent display (ELD)
- Electronic paper, E Ink
- Plasma display panel (PDP)
- Liquid crystal display (LCD)
- High-Performance Addressing display (HPA)
- Thin-film transistor display (TFT)
- Organic light-emitting diode display (OLED)
- Digital Light Processing display (DLP)
- Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED) (experimental)
- Field emission display (FED) (experimental)
- Laser TV (forthcoming)
- Carbon nanotubes (experimental)
- Quantum dot display (QLED)
- Interferometric modulator display (IMOD)
- Digital microshutter display (DMS)
- microLED (in development)
The multiplexed display technique is used to drive most display devices.
Three-dimensional displays
- Swept-volume display
- Varifocal mirror display
- Emissive volume display
- Laser display
- Holographic display
- Light field displays
Mechanical types
- Ticker tape (historical)
- Split-flap display (or simply flap display)
- Flip-disc display (or flip-dot display)
- Rollsign
- Tactile electronic displays are usually intended for the blind. They use electro-mechanical parts to dynamically update a tactile image (usually of text) so that the image may be felt by the fingers.
- Optacon, using metal rods instead of light in order to convey images to blind people by tactile sensation.
See also
- Comparison CRT, LCD, Plasma
- Graphical user interfaces
- History of display technology
- Human machine interface
- Input device
- Text display
References
- ^ Lemley, Linda. “Chapter 6: Output”. Discovering Computers. University of West Florida. Archived from the original on 14 August 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
- ^ “Accommodations For Vision Disabilities”. Energy.gov. Office of the Chief information Officer. Archived from the original on 9 August 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
External links
- Society for Information Display – An international professional organization dedicated to the study of display technology
- University of Waterloo Stratford Campus – A university that offers students the opportunity to display their work on the school’s 3-storey Christie MicroTile wall.
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The act of making an image with a mobile phone camera. The display of the mobile phone shows the image being made.
A scanned image of the definition of image and imagery, from Thomas Blount’s Glossographia Anglicana Nova, 1707.
An SAR radar image acquired by the SIR-C/X-SAR radar on board the Space Shuttle Endeavour shows the Teide volcano. The city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is visible as the purple and white area on the lower right edge of the island. Lava flows at the summit crater appear in shades of green and brown, while vegetation zones appear as areas of purple, green and yellow on the volcano’s flanks
An image (from Latin: imago) is an artifact that depicts visual perception, such as a photograph or other two-dimensional picture, that resembles a subject—usually a physical object—and thus provides a depiction of it. In the context of signal processing, an image is a distributed amplitude of color(s).[1] A pictorial script is a writing system that employs images as symbols for various semantic entities, rather than the abstract signs used by alphabets.
Characteristics
Images may be two-dimensional, such as a photograph or screen display, or three-dimensional, such as a statue or hologram. They may be captured by optical devices – such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc. and natural objects and phenomena, such as the human eye or water.
The word ‘image’ is also used in the broader sense of any two-dimensional figure such as a map, a graph, a pie chart, a painting or a banner. In this wider sense, images can also be rendered manually, such as by drawing, the art of painting, carving, rendered automatically by printing or computer graphics technology, or developed by a combination of methods, especially in a pseudo-photograph.
A volatile image is one that exists only for a short period of time. This may be a reflection of an object by a mirror, a projection of a camera obscura, or a scene displayed on a cathode ray tube. A fixed image, also called a hard copy, is one that has been recorded on a material object, such as paper or textile by photography or any other digital process.
A mental image exists in an individual’s mind, as something one remembers or imagines. The subject of an image need not be real; it may be an abstract concept, such as a graph, function, or imaginary entity. For example, Sigmund Freud claimed to have dreamed purely in aural-images of dialogs.[citation needed] Different scholars of psychoanalysis as well as the social sciences such as Slavoj Žižek and Jan Berger have pointed out the possibility of manipulating mental images for ideological purposes. Images perpetuated in public education, media as well as popular culture have a profound impact on the formation of such mental images:
“What makes them so powerful is that they circumvent the faculties of the conscious mind but, instead, directly target the subconscious and affective, thus evading direct inquiry through contemplative reasoning. By doing so such axiomatic images tell us what we shall desire (liberalism, in a snapshot: the crunchy honey-flavored cereals and the freshly-pressed orange juice in the back of a suburban one-family home) and from what we shall obstain (communism, in a snapshot: lifeless crowds of men and machinery marching towards certain perdition accompanied by the tunes of Soviet Russian songs). What makes those images so powerful is that it is only of relative minor relevance for the stabilization of such images whether they actually capture and correspond with the multiple layers of reality, or not.”[2] – David Leupold, sociologist
The development of synthetic acoustic technologies and the creation of sound art have led to a consideration of the possibilities of a sound-image made up of irreducible phonic substance beyond linguistic or musicological analysis.
There are Two Types of Images a. Still Image b. Moving Image
Still or moving
A still image is a single static image. This phrase is used in photography, visual media and the computer industry to emphasize that one is not talking about movies, or in very precise or pedantic technical writing such as a standard.
A moving image is typically a movie (film) or video, including digital video. It could also be an animated display such as a zoetrope.
A still frame is a still image derived from one frame of a moving one. In contrast, a film still is a photograph taken on the set of a movie or television program during production, used for promotional purposes.
Imagery (literary term)
In literature, imagery is a “mental picture” which appeals to the senses.[3][example needed] It can both be figurative and literal.
See also
- Cinematography
- Computer-generated imagery
- Digital image
- Fine-art photography
- Graphics
- Image editing
- Photograph
- Satellite image
Media related to Images at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Image at Wikiquote
The dictionary definition of image at Wiktionary
A digital image is an image composed of picture elements, also known as pixels, each with finite, discrete quantities of numeric representation for its intensity or gray level that is an output from its two-dimensional functions fed as input by its spatial coordinates denoted with x, y on the x-axis and y-axis, respectively.[1] Depending on whether the image resolution is fixed, it may be of vector or raster type. By itself, the term “digital image” usually refers to raster images or bitmapped images (as opposed to vector images).[citation needed]
Raster
Raster images have a finite set of digital values, called picture elements or pixels. The digital image contains a fixed number of rows and columns of pixels. Pixels are the smallest individual element in an image, holding antiquated values that represent the brightness of a given color at any specific point.
Typically, the pixels are stored in computer memory as a raster image or raster map, a two-dimensional array of small integers. These values are often transmitted or stored in a compressed form.
Raster images can be created by a variety of input devices and techniques, such as digital cameras, scanners, coordinate-measuring machines, seismographic profiling, airborne radar, and more. They can also be synthesized from arbitrary non-image data, such as mathematical functions or three-dimensional geometric models; the latter being a major sub-area of computer graphics. The field of digital image processing is the study of algorithms for their transformation.
Raster file formats
Most users come into contact with raster images through digital cameras, which use any of several image file formats.
Some digital cameras give access to almost all the data captured by the camera, using a raw image format. The Universal Photographic Imaging Guidelines (UPDIG) suggests these formats be used when possible since raw files produce the best quality images. These file formats allow the photographer and the processing agent the greatest level of control and accuracy for output. Their use is inhibited by the prevalence of proprietary information (trade secrets) for some camera makers, but there have been initiatives such as OpenRAW to influence manufacturers to release these records publicly. An alternative may be Digital Negative (DNG), a proprietary Adobe product described as “the public, archival format for digital camera raw data”.[2] Although this format is not yet universally accepted, support for the product is growing, and increasingly professional archivists and conservationists, working for respectable organizations, variously suggest or recommend DNG for archival purposes.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]
Vector
Vector images resulted from mathematical geometry (vector). In mathematical terms, a vector consists of both a magnitude, or length, and a direction.
Often, both raster and vector elements will be combined in one image; for example, in the case of a billboard with text (vector) and photographs (raster).
Image viewing
Image viewer software displays images. Web browsers can display standard internet image formats including JPEG, GIF and PNG. Some can show SVG format which is a standard W3C format. In the past, when Internet was still slow, it was common to provide “preview” image that would load and appear on the web site before being replaced by the main image (to give at preliminary impression). Now Internet is fast enough and this preview image is seldom used.
Some scientific images can be very large (for instance, the 46 gigapixel size image of the Milky Way, about 194 Gb in size).[11] Such images are difficult to download and are usually browsed online through more complex web interfaces.
Some viewers offer a slideshow utility to display a sequence of images.
History
The first scan done by the SEAC in 1957
The SEAC scanner
Early digital fax machines such as the Bartlane cable picture transmission system preceded digital cameras and computers by decades. The first picture to be scanned, stored, and recreated in digital pixels was displayed on the Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) at NIST.[12] The advancement of digital imagery continued in the early 1960s, alongside development of the space program and in medical research. Projects at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, MIT, Bell Labs and the University of Maryland, among others, used digital images to advance satellite imagery, wirephoto standards conversion, medical imaging, videophone technology, character recognition, and photo enhancement.[13]
Rapid advances in digital imaging began with the introduction of MOS integrated circuits in the 1960s and microprocessors in the early 1970s, alongside progress in related computer memory storage, display technologies, and data compression algorithms.
The invention of computerized axial tomography (CAT scanning), using x-rays to produce a digital image of a “slice” through a three-dimensional object, was of great importance to medical diagnostics. As well as origination of digital images, digitization of analog images allowed the enhancement and restoration of archaeological artifacts and began to be used in fields as diverse as nuclear medicine, astronomy, law enforcement, defence and industry.[14]
Advances in microprocessor technology paved the way for the development and marketing of charge-coupled devices (CCDs) for use in a wide range of image capture devices and gradually displaced the use of analog film and tape in photography and videography towards the end of the 20th century. The computing power necessary to process digital image capture also allowed computer-generated digital images to achieve a level of refinement close to photorealism.[15]
Digital image sensors
The basis for digital image sensors is metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) technology,[16] which originates from the invention of the MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor) by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.[17] This led to the development of digital semiconductor image sensors, including the charge-coupled device (CCD) and later the CMOS sensor.[16]
The first semiconductor image sensor was the CCD, developed by Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith at Bell Labs in 1969.[18] While researching MOS technology, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next.[16] The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first digital video cameras for television broadcasting.[19]
Early CCD sensors suffered from shutter lag. This was largely resolved with the invention of the pinned photodiode (PPD).[20] It was invented by Nobukazu Teranishi, Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at NEC in 1980.[20][21] It was a photodetector structure with low lag, low noise, high quantum efficiency and low dark current.[20] In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD devices, becoming a fixture in consumer electronic video cameras and then digital still cameras. Since then, the PPD has been used in nearly all CCD sensors and then CMOS sensors.[20]
The NMOS active-pixel sensor (APS) was invented by Olympus in Japan during the mid-1980s. This was enabled by advances in MOS semiconductor device fabrication, with MOSFET scaling reaching smaller micron and then sub-micron levels.[22][23] The NMOS APS was fabricated by Tsutomu Nakamura’s team at Olympus in 1985.[24] The CMOS active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor) was later developed by Eric Fossum‘s team at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in 1993.[20] By 2007, sales of CMOS sensors had surpassed CCD sensors.[25]
Digital image compression
An important development in digital image compression technology was the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a lossy compression technique first proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972.[26] DCT compression became the basis for JPEG, which was introduced by the Joint Photographic Experts Group in 1992.[27] JPEG compresses images down to much smaller file sizes, and has become the most widely used image file format on the Internet.[28] Its highly efficient DCT compression algorithm was largely responsible for the wide proliferation of digital images and digital photos,[29] with several billion JPEG images produced every day as of 2015.[30]
Mosaic
In digital imaging, a mosaic is a combination of non-overlapping images, arranged in some tessellation. Gigapixel images are an example of such digital image mosaics. Satellite imagery are often mosaicked to cover Earth regions.
See also
References
- ^ Gonzalez, Rafael (2018). Digital image processing. New York, NY: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-335672-4. OCLC 966609831.
- ^ Digital Negative (DNG) Specification. San Jose: Adobe, 2005. Vers. 1.1.0.0. p. 9. Accessed on December 10, 2007.
- ^ universal photographic digital imaging guidelines (UPDIG): File formats – the raw file issue
- ^ Archaeology Data Service / Digital Antiquity: Guides to Good Practice – Section 3 Archiving Raster Images – File Formats
- ^ University of Connecticut: “Raw as Archival Still Image Format: A Consideration” by Michael J. Bennett and F. Barry Wheeler
- ^ Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research: Obsolescence – File Formats and Software
- ^ JISC Digital Media – Still Images: Choosing a File Format for Digital Still Images – File formats for master archive
- ^ The J. Paul Getty Museum – Department of Photographs: Rapid Capture Backlog Project – Presentation Archived 2012-06-10 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ most important image on the internet – Electronic Media Group: Digital Image File Formats
- ^ Archives Association of British Columbia: Acquisition and Preservation Strategies (Rosaleen Hill)[permanent dead link]
- ^ “This 46-Gigapixel photo of the Milky Way will blow your mind”. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
- ^ Fiftieth Anniversary of First Digital Image.
- ^ Azriel Rosenfeld, Picture Processing by Computer, New York: Academic Press, 1969
- ^ Gonzalez, Rafael, C; Woods, Richard E (2008). Digital Image Processing, 3rd Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 577. ISBN 978-0-13-168728-8.
- ^ Jähne, Bernd (1993). Spatio-temporal image processing, Theory and Scientific Applications. Springer Verlag. p. 208. ISBN 3-540-57418-2.
- ^ Jump up to:a b c Williams, J. B. (2017). The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future. Springer. pp. 245–8. ISBN 9783319490885.
- ^ “1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated”. The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum. Retrieved August 31, 2019.
- ^ James R. Janesick (2001). Scientific charge-coupled devices. SPIE Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-8194-3698-6.
- ^ Boyle, William S; Smith, George E. (1970). “Charge Coupled Semiconductor Devices”. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 49 (4): 587–593. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1970.tb01790.x.
- ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Fossum, Eric R.; Hondongwa, D. B. (2014). “A Review of the Pinned Photodiode for CCD and CMOS Image Sensors”. IEEE Journal of the Electron Devices Society. 2 (3): 33–43. doi:10.1109/JEDS.2014.2306412.
- ^ U.S. Patent 4,484,210: Solid-state imaging device having a reduced image lag
- ^ Fossum, Eric R. (12 August 1993). Blouke, Morley M. (ed.). “Active pixel sensors: are CCDs dinosaurs?”. SPIE Proceedings Vol. 1900: Charge-Coupled Devices and Solid State Optical Sensors III. International Society for Optics and Photonics. 1900: 2–14. Bibcode:1993SPIE.1900….2F. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.408.6558. doi:10.1117/12.148585. S2CID 10556755.
- ^ Fossum, Eric R. (2007). “Active Pixel Sensors”. S2CID 18831792.
- ^ Matsumoto, Kazuya; et al. (1985). “A new MOS phototransistor operating in a non-destructive readout mode”. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics. 24 (5A): L323. Bibcode:1985JaJAP..24L.323M. doi:10.1143/JJAP.24.L323.
- ^ “CMOS Image Sensor Sales Stay on Record-Breaking Pace”. IC Insights. August 8, 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2019.
- ^ Ahmed, Nasir (January 1991). “How I Came Up With the Discrete Cosine Transform”. Digital Signal Processing. 1 (1): 4–5. doi:10.1016/1051-2004(91)90086-Z.
- ^ “T.81 – Digital Compression and Coding of Continuous-Tone Still Images – Requirements and Guidelines” (PDF). CCITT. December 1992. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
- ^ “The JPEG image format explained”. BT.com. BT Group. 31 August 2018. Retrieved 5 August 2019.
- ^ “What Is a JPEG? The Invisible Object You See Every Day”. The Atlantic. 24 December 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2019.
- ^ Baraniuk, Chris (15 December 2015). “Copy protections could come to JPEGs”. BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 13 December2019.
A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial form. A monitor usually comprises the visual display, circuitry, casing, and power supply. The display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD) with LED backlighting having replaced cold-cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) backlighting. Older monitors used a cathode ray tube (CRT). Monitors are connected to the computer via VGA, Digital Visual Interface (DVI), HDMI, DisplayPort, Thunderbolt, low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS) or other proprietary connectors and signals.
Originally, computer monitors were used for data processing while television sets were used for entertainment. From the 1980s onwards, computers (and their monitors) have been used for both data processing and entertainment, while televisions have implemented some computer functionality. The common aspect ratio of televisions, and computer monitors, has changed from 4:3 to 16:10, to 16:9.
Modern computer monitors are easily interchangeable with conventional television sets and vice versa. However, as computer monitors do not necessarily include integrated speakers nor TV tuners (such as Digital television adapters), it may not be possible to use a computer monitor as a TV set without external components.[1]
History
Early electronic computers were fitted with a panel of light bulbs where the state of each particular bulb would indicate the on/off state of a particular register bit inside the computer. This allowed the engineers operating the computer to monitor the internal state of the machine, so this panel of lights came to be known as the ‘monitor’. As early monitors were only capable of displaying a very limited amount of information and were very transient, they were rarely considered for program output. Instead, a line printer was the primary output device, while the monitor was limited to keeping track of the program’s operation.[2]
As technology developed engineers realized that the output of a CRT display was more flexible than a panel of light bulbs and eventually, by giving control of what was displayed in the program itself, the monitor itself became a powerful output device in its own right.[citation needed]
Computer monitors were formerly known as visual display units (VDU), but this term had mostly fallen out of use by the 1990s.
Technologies
Multiple technologies have been used for computer monitors. Until the 21st century most used cathode ray tubes but they have largely been superseded by LCD monitors.
Cathode ray tube
The first computer monitors used cathode ray tubes (CRTs). Prior to the advent of home computers in the late 1970s, it was common for a video display terminal (VDT) using a CRT to be physically integrated with a keyboard and other components of the system in a single large chassis. The display was monochrome and far less sharp and detailed than on a modern flat-panel monitor, necessitating the use of relatively large text and severely limiting the amount of information that could be displayed at one time. High-resolution CRT displays were developed for the specialized military, industrial and scientific applications but they were far too costly for general use.
Some of the earliest home computers (such as the TRS-80 and Commodore PET) were limited to monochrome CRT displays, but colour display capability was already a standard feature of the pioneering Apple II, introduced in 1977, and the speciality of the more graphically sophisticated Atari 800, introduced in 1979. Either computer could be connected to the antenna terminals of an ordinary colour TV set or used with a purpose-made CRT colour monitor for optimum resolution and colour quality. Lagging several years behind, in 1981 IBM introduced the Color Graphics Adapter, which could display four colours with a resolution of 320 x 200 pixels, or it could produce 640 x 200 pixels with two colours. In 1984 IBM introduced the Enhanced Graphics Adapter which was capable of producing 16 colors and had a resolution of 640 x 350.[3]
By the end of the 1980’s colour CRT monitors that could clearly display 1024 x 768 pixels were widely available and increasingly affordable. During the following decade, maximum display resolutions gradually increased and prices continued to fall. CRT technology remained dominant in the PC monitor market into the new millennium partly because it was cheaper to produce and offered to view angles close to 180 degrees.[4] CRTs still offer some image quality advantages[clarification needed] over LCDs but improvements to the latter have made them much less obvious. The dynamic range of early LCD panels was very poor, and although text and other motionless graphics were sharper than on a CRT, an LCD characteristic known as pixel lag caused moving graphics to appear noticeably smeared and blurry.
Liquid crystal display
There are multiple technologies that have been used to implement liquid crystal displays (LCD). Throughout the 1990s, the primary use of LCD technology as computer monitors was in laptops where the lower power consumption, lighter weight, and smaller physical size of LCDs justified the higher price versus a CRT. Commonly, the same laptop would be offered with an assortment of display options at increasing price points: (active or passive) monochrome, passive color, or active matrix color (TFT). As volume and manufacturing capability have improved, the monochrome and passive color technologies were dropped from most product lines.
TFT-LCD is a variant of LCD which is now the dominant technology used for computer monitors.[5]
The first standalone LCDs appeared in the mid-1990s selling for high prices. As prices declined over a period of years they became more popular, and by 1997 were competing with CRT monitors. Among the first desktop LCD computer monitors was the Eizo L66 in the mid-1990s, the Apple Studio Display in 1998, and the Apple Cinema Display in 1999. In 2003, TFT-LCDs outsold CRTs for the first time, becoming the primary technology used for computer monitors.[4] The main advantages of LCDs over CRT displays are that LCDs consume less power, take up much less space, and are considerably lighter. The now common active matrix TFT-LCD technology also has less flickering than CRTs, which reduces eye strain.[6] On the other hand, CRT monitors have superior contrast, have a superior response time, are able to use multiple screen resolutions natively, and there is no discernible flicker if the refresh rate[7] is set to a sufficiently high value. LCD monitors have now very high temporal accuracy and can be used for vision research.[8]
High dynamic range (HDR)[7] has been implemented into high-end LCD monitors to improve color accuracy. Since around the late 2000s, widescreen LCD monitors have become popular, in part due to television series, motion pictures and video games transitioning to high-definition (HD), which makes standard-width monitors unable to display them correctly as they either stretch or crop HD content. These types of monitors may also display it in the proper width, by filling the extra space at the top and bottom of the image with a solid colour (“letterboxing“). Other advantages of widescreen monitors over standard-width monitors is that they make work more productive by displaying more of a user’s documents and images, and allow displaying toolbars with documents. They also have a larger viewing area, with a typical widescreen monitor having a 16:9 aspect ratio, compared to the 4:3 aspect ratio of a typical standard-width monitor.
Organic light-emitting diode
Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) monitors provide higher contrast, better color reproduction and viewing angles than LCDs but they require more power when displaying documents with white or bright backgrounds and have a severe problem known as burn-in, just like CRTs. They are less common than LCD monitors and are often more expensive.
Measurements of performance
The performance of a monitor is measured by the following parameters:
- Luminance is measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2 also called a Nit).
- Color depth is measured in bits per primary color or bits for all colors. Those with 10-bits or more are HDR monitors, which can display more shades of colors (approx. 1 billion shades) than traditional 8 bit monitors (approx. 16.6 million shades or colors), and can do so more precisely without having to resort to dithering, which would also reduce image sharpness. HDR monitors are required to be brighter than conventional montors while simultaneously showing deeper blacks (higher contrast ratios). The minimum brightness and contrast ratios are defined by the HDR standard the monitor adheres to.
- Gamut is measured as coordinates in the CIE 1931 color space. The names sRGB or AdobeRGB are shorthand notations.
- Aspect ratio is the ratio of the horizontal length to the vertical length. Monitors usually have the aspect ratio 4:3, 5:4, 16:10 or 16:9.
- Viewable image size is usually measured diagonally, but the actual widths and heights are more informative since they are not affected by the aspect ratio in the same way. For CRTs, the viewable size is typically 1 in (25 mm) smaller than the tube itself.
- Display resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed. For a given display size, maximum resolution is limited by dot pitch or DPI.
- Dot pitch is, in CRTs, the distance between sub-pixels of the same color in millimeters. In LCDs it is instead measured in pixels per inch or dots per inch (PPI or DPI), In general, the smaller the dot pitch, or the higher the PPI or DPI, the sharper the picture will appear.
- Refresh rate is (in CRTs) the number of times in a second that the display is illuminated. (The number of times a second a raster scan is completed) In LCDs it is the number of times the image can be changed per second. Measured in Hertz (Hz). Maximum refresh rate is limited by response time. Determines the maximum number of frames per second (FPS) a monitor is capable of showing.
- Response time is the time a pixel in a monitor takes to go from active (white) to inactive (black) and back to active (white) again, measured in milliseconds. Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts such as ghosting.
- Display lag is the time (measured in miliseconds (ms) it takes for a monitor to display an image after receiving it.
- Contrast ratio is the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color (white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the monitor is capable of producing simultaneously. For example, a ratio of 20,000:1 means that its brightest white can be 20,000 times brighter than its darkest black. Dynamic contrast ratio is measured with the LCD backlight turned off.
- Power consumption is measured in watts.
- Delta-E: Color accuracy is measured in delta-E; the lower the delta-E, the more accurate the color representation. A delta-E of below 1 is imperceptible to the human eye. Delta-Es of 2 to 4 are considered good and require a sensitive eye to spot the difference.
- Viewing angle is the maximum angle at which images on the monitor can be viewed, without excessive degradation to the image. It is measured in degrees horizontally and vertically.
Curved monitors also have an R value; the lower the R value, the more curved the monitor. The R value is the radius in milimeters of a theoretical circle formed by tiling several equal monitors end to end. [9]
Size
The area, height and width of displays with identical diagonal measurements vary dependent on aspect ratio.
On two-dimensional display devices such as computer monitors the display size or view able image size is the actual amount of screen space that is available to display a picture, video or working space, without obstruction from the case or other aspects of the unit’s design. The main measurements for display devices are: width, height, total area and the diagonal.
The size of a display is usually by monitor manufacturers given by the diagonal, i.e. the distance between two opposite screen corners. This method of measurement is inherited from the method used for the first generation of CRT television, when picture tubes with circular faces were in common use. Being circular, it was the external diameter of the glass envelope that described their size. Since these circular tubes were used to display rectangular images, the diagonal measurement of the rectangular image was smaller than the diameter of the tube’s face (due to the thickness of the glass). This method continued even when cathode ray tubes were manufactured as rounded rectangles; it had the advantage of being a single number specifying the size, and was not confusing when the aspect ratio was universally 4:3.
With the introduction of flat panel technology, the diagonal measurement became the actual diagonal of the visible display. This meant that an eighteen-inch LCD had a larger visible area than an eighteen-inch cathode ray tube.
The estimation of the monitor size by the distance between opposite corners does not take into account the display aspect ratio, so that for example a 16:9 21-inch (53 cm) widescreen display has less area, than a 21-inch (53 cm) 4:3 screen. The 4:3 screen has dimensions of 16.8 in × 12.6 in (43 cm × 32 cm) and area 211 sq in (1,360 cm2), while the widescreen is 18.3 in × 10.3 in (46 cm × 26 cm), 188 sq in (1,210 cm2).
Aspect ratio
Until about 2003, most computer monitors had a 4:3 aspect ratio and some had 5:4. Between 2003 and 2006, monitors with 16:9 and mostly 16:10 (8:5) aspect ratios became commonly available, first in laptops and later also in standalone monitors. Reasons for this transition was productive uses for such monitors, i.e. besides widescreen computer game play and movie viewing, are the word processor display of two standard letter pages side by side, as well as CAD displays of large-size drawings and CAD application menus at the same time.[10][11] In 2008 16:10 became the most common sold aspect ratio for LCD monitors and the same year 16:10 was the mainstream standard for laptops and notebook computers.[12]
In 2010 the computer industry started to move over from 16:10 to 16:9 because 16:9 was chosen to be the standard high-definition television display size, and because they were cheaper to manufacture.
In 2011 non-widescreen displays with 4:3 aspect ratios were only being manufactured in small quantities. According to Samsung this was because the “Demand for the old ‘Square monitors’ has decreased rapidly over the last couple of years,” and “I predict that by the end of 2011, production on all 4:3 or similar panels will be halted due to a lack of demand.”[13]
Resolution
The resolution for computer monitors has increased over time. From 320×200 during the early 1980s, to 1024×768 during the late 1990s. Since 2009, the most commonly sold resolution for computer monitors is 1920×1080.[14] Before 2013 top-end consumer LCD monitors were limited to 2560×1600 at 30 in (76 cm), excluding Apple products and CRT monitors. Apple introduced 2880×1800 with Retina MacBook Pro at 15.4 in (39 cm) on August 12, 2012, and introduced a 5120×2880 Retina iMac at 27 in (69 cm) on December 16, 2014. By 2015 most major display manufacturers had released 3840×2160 resolution displays.
Gamut
Every RGB monitor has its own color gamut, bounded in chromaticity by a color triangle. Some of these triangles are smaller than the sRGB triangle, some are larger. Colors are typically encoded by 8 bits per primary color. The RGB value [255, 0, 0] represents red, but slightly different colors in different color spaces such as AdobeRGB and sRGB. Displaying sRGB-encoded data on wide-gamut devices can give an unrealistic result.[15] The gamut is a property of the monitor; the image color space can be forwarded as Exif metadata in the picture. As long as the monitor gamut is wider than the color space gamut, correct display is possible, if the monitor is calibrated. A picture that uses colors that are outside the sRGB color space will display on an sRGB color space monitor with limitations.[16] Still today, many monitors that can display the sRGB color space are not factory adjusted to display it correctly. Color management is needed both in electronic publishing (via the Internet for display in browsers) and in desktop publishing targeted to print.
Additional features
Most modern monitors will switch to a power-saving mode if no video-input signal is received. This allows modern operating systems to turn off a monitor after a specified period of inactivity. This also extends the monitor’s service life. Some monitors will also switch themselves off after a time period on standby.
Most modern laptops provide a method of screen dimming after periods of inactivity or when the battery is in use. This extends battery life and reduces wear.
Integrated accessories
Many monitors have other accessories (or connections for them) integrated. This places standard ports within easy reach and eliminates the need for another separate hub, camera, microphone, or set of speakers. These monitors have advanced microprocessors which contain codec information, Windows Interface drivers and other small software which help in proper functioning of these functions.
Glossy screen
Some displays, especially newer LCD monitors, replace the traditional anti-glare matte finish with a glossy one. This increases color saturation and sharpness but reflections from lights and windows are very visible. Anti-reflective coatings are sometimes applied to help reduce reflections, although this only mitigates the effect.
Curved designs
In about 2009, NEC/Alienware together with Ostendo Technologies (based in Carlsbad, CA) were offering a curved (concave) 43-inch (110 cm) monitor that allows better viewing angles near the edges, covering 75% of peripheral vision in the horizontal direction. This monitor had 2880×900 resolution, 4 DLP rear projection systems with LED light sources and was marketed as suitable both for gaming and office work, while for $6499 it was rather expensive.[17] While this particular monitor is no longer in production, most PC manufacturers now offer some sort of curved desktop display.
Directional screen
Narrow viewing angle screens are used in some security conscious applications.
3D
Newer monitors are able to display a different image for each eye, often with the help of special glasses, giving the perception of depth. An autostereoscopic screen can generate 3D images without headgear.
Touch screen
These monitors use touching of the screen as an input method. Items can be selected or moved with a finger, and finger gestures may be used to convey commands. The screen will need frequent cleaning due to image degradation from fingerprints.
Tablet screens
A combination of a monitor with a graphics tablet. Such devices are typically unresponsive to touch without the use of one or more special tools’ pressure. Newer models however are now able to detect touch from any pressure and often have the ability to detect tilt and rotation as well.
Touch and tablet screens are used on LCDs as a substitute for the light pen, which can only work on CRTs.
Ultrawide screens
Monitors that feature an aspect ratio of 21:9 or 32:9 as opposed to the more common 16:9. 32:9 monitors are marketed as super ultrawide monitors.
Mounting
Computer monitors are provided with a variety of methods for mounting them depending on the application and environment.
Desktop
A desktop monitor is typically provided with a stand from the manufacturer which lifts the monitor up to a more ergonomic viewing height. The stand may be attached to the monitor using a proprietary method or may use, or be adaptable to, a Video Electronics Standards Association, VESA, standard mount. Using a VESA standard mount allows the monitor to be used with an after-market stand once the original stand is removed. Stands may be fixed or offer a variety of features such as height adjustment, horizontal swivel, and landscape or portrait screen orientation.
VESA mount
The Flat Display Mounting Interface (FDMI), also known as VESA Mounting Interface Standard (MIS) or colloquially as a VESA mount, is a family of standards defined by the Video Electronics Standards Association for mounting flat panel monitors, TVs, and other displays to stands or wall mounts.[18] It is implemented on most modern flat-panel monitors and TVs.
For Computer Monitors, the VESA Mount typically consists of four threaded holes on the rear of the display that will mate with an adapter bracket.
Rack mount
Rack mount computer monitors are available in two styles and are intended to be mounted into a 19-inch rack:
A fixed 19-inch (48 cm), 4:3 rack mount LCD monitor
A fixed rack mount monitor is mounted directly to the rack with the LCD visible at all times. The height of the unit is measured in rack units (RU) and 8U or 9U are most common to fit 17-inch or 19-inch LCDs. The front sides of the unit are provided with flanges to mount to the rack, providing appropriately spaced holes or slots for the rack mounting screws. A 19-inch diagonal LCD is the largest size that will fit within the rails of a 19-inch rack. Larger LCDs may be accommodated but are ‘mount-on-rack’ and extend forward of the rack. There are smaller display units, typically used in broadcast environments, which fit multiple smaller LCDs side by side into one rack mount.
A 1U stowable clamshell 19-inch (48 cm), 4:3 rack mount LCD monitor with keyboard
A stowable rack mount monitor is 1U, 2U or 3U high and is mounted on rack slides allowing the display to be folded down and the unit slid into the rack for storage. The display is visible only when the display is pulled out of the rack and deployed. These units may include only a display or may be equipped with a keyboard creating a KVM (Keyboard Video Monitor). Most common are systems with a single LCD but there are systems providing two or three displays in a single rack mount system.
A panel mount 19-inch (48 cm), 4:3 rack mount LCD monitor
Panel mount
A panel mount computer monitor is intended for mounting into a flat surface with the front of the display unit protruding just slightly. They may also be mounted to the rear of the panel. A flange is provided around the LCD, sides, top and bottom, to allow mounting. This contrasts with a rack mount display where the flanges are only on the sides. The flanges will be provided with holes for thru-bolts or may have studs welded to the rear surface to secure the unit in the hole in the panel. Often a gasket is provided to provide a water-tight seal to the panel and the front of the LCD will be sealed to the back of the front panel to prevent water and dirt contamination.
Open frame
An open frame monitor provides the LCD monitor and enough supporting structure to hold associated electronics and to minimally support the LCD. Provision will be made for attaching the unit to some external structure for support and protection. Open frame LCDs are intended to be built into some other piece of equipment. An arcade video game would be a good example with the display mounted inside the cabinet. There is usually an open frame display inside all end-use displays with the end-use display simply providing an attractive protective enclosure. Some rack mount LCD manufacturers will purchase desktop displays, take them apart, and discard the outer plastic parts, keeping the inner open-frame LCD for inclusion into their product.
Security vulnerabilities
According to an NSA document leaked to Der Spiegel, the NSA sometimes swaps the monitor cables on targeted computers with a bugged monitor cable in order to allow the NSA to remotely see what is being displayed on the targeted computer monitor.[19]
Van Eck phreaking is the process of remotely displaying the contents of a CRT or LCD by detecting its electromagnetic emissions. It is named after Dutch computer researcher Wim van Eck, who in 1985 published the first paper on it, including proof of concept. Phreaking more generally is the process of exploiting telephone networks.[20]
See also
References
- ^ “Difference Between TV and Computer Monitor | Difference Between”. www.differencebetween.net. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
- ^ “How Computers Work: Input and Output”. homepage.cs.uri.edu. Retrieved 2021-05-29.
- ^ “Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitors”. Infodingo.com. Archived from the original on 2011-03-26. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
- ^ Jump up to:a b “CRT Monitors”. PCTechGuide.Com. Archived from the original on 2011-05-23. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
- ^ “TFT Central”. TFT Central. 2017-09-29. Archived from the original on 2017-06-29. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
- ^ “Is the LCD monitor right for you?”. Infodingo.com. Archived from the original on 2010-12-27. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
- ^ Jump up to:a b “Refresh rate: A note-worthy factor for a PC monitor”. Review Rooster. 26 December 2018.
- ^ Wang, P. and D. Nikolić (2011) An LCD monitor with sufficiently precise timing for research in vision. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 5:85. Wang, Peng; Nikolić, D. (2011). “An LCD monitor with sufficiently precise timing for research in vision”. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 5: 85. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2011.00085. PMC 3157744. PMID 21887142.
- ^ https://pid.samsungdisplay.com/en/learning-center/white-papers/deep-dive-into-curved-displays#:~:text=When%20measuring%20curved%20monitors%2C%20the,the%20higher%20the%20monitor%27s%20curve.
- ^ NEMATech Computer Display Standards “Archived copy”. Archived from the original on 2012-03-02. Retrieved 2011-04-29.
- ^ “Introduction—Monitor Technology Guide”. necdisplay.com. Archived from the original on 2007-03-15. (currently offline)
- ^ “Product Planners and Marketers Must Act Before 16:9 Panels Replace Mainstream 16:10 and Monitor LCD Panels, New DisplaySearch Topical Report Advises”. DisplaySearch. 2008-07-01. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
- ^ Widescreen monitors: Where did 1920×1200 go? Archived 2011-01-13 at the Wayback Machine Mybroadband.co.za (2011-01-10). Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
- ^ Monitors/TFT 16:9/16:10 | Skinflint Price Comparison EU Archived2012-04-26 at the Wayback Machine. Skinflint.co.uk. Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
- ^ Friedl, Jeffrey. “Digital-Image Color Spaces, Page 2: Test Images”. Retrieved 2018-12-10.
See For Yourself The Effects of Misinterpreted Color Data
- ^ Koren, Norman. “Gamut mapping”. Archived from the original on 2011-12-21. Retrieved 2018-12-10.
The rendering intent determines how colors are handled that are present in the source but out of gamut in the destination
- ^ R. Nelson (2009) Archived 2013-04-14 at the Wayback Machine. NEC/Alienware Curved Display Now Available
- ^ “FDMI Overview” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-09-27.
- ^ Shopping for Spy Gear: Catalog Advertises NSA Toolbox, dec 2013Archived 2015-09-06 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Definition of terms clarified and discussed in Aaron Schwabach, Internet and the Law: Technology, Society, and Compromises, 2nd Edition (Santa Barbara CA: ABC-CLIO, 2014), 192-3. ISBN 9781610693509
This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.
